Indian Journal of Health Social Work
(UGC CARE List Journal)
POST-RELIGIOUS IDENTITY FORMATION AND WELL-BEING: A
NARRATIVE REVIEW
Palash Mandal1, Prioma Das2
1Assistant Professor, Govt. General Degree College Gopiballavpur-II, Jhargram, West Bengal,
2Senior Clinician (PSW), Mental Health Action Trust, Kozhikode, Kerala
Correspondence: Palash Mandal, e-mail: palashsocio@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Religious disaffiliation is an increasingly common phenomenon in many parts of the world, with
a growing number of individuals identifying as atheist, agnostic, or “spiritual but not religious.”
This transition involves not only a change in belief but also a significant identity shift, often
accompanied by challenges and opportunities for psychological well-being. This narrative review
examines empirical evidence on the relationship between post-religious identity formation and
well-being outcomes, including subjective well-being, mental health, and social belonging. Findings
suggest that post-religious individuals experience enhanced autonomy, authenticity, and personal
growth; however, they also face stigma, social isolation, and existential distress, particularly in
highly religious societies. The review further reveals that factors such as cultural environment,
prior religious involvement, and access to secular support networks moderate the relationship
between post-religious identity and well-being.
Keywords: Religious disaffiliation, Post-religious identity, Psychological well-being
Submitted: 02.02.2026 Revised: 10.03.2026 Accepted: 10.06.2026 Published: 30.07.2026
How to cite this article: Mandal P & Das P. (2026). Post-Religious Identity Formation and
Well-Being: A Narrative Review. Indian Journal of Health Social Work, 8(1), 31-35.
INTRODUCTION
Religious identity is deeply connected with
personal meaning, social belonging, and
cultural integration. For many individuals,
leaving religion represents more than the loss
of a belief system; it involves a fundamental
reconstruction of self-identity and social
networks. The process of leaving religious
identity has been variously described as
deconversion, disaffiliation, and religious exit.
While existing research has extensively
explored the mental health benefits of
religiosity, the psychological outcomes of
leaving religion remain less systematically
examined.
This review aims to consolidate empirical
evidence on how post-religious identity
formation affects well-being. Specifically, it
examines (a) mental health outcomes such as
depression and anxiety; (b) subjective well
being indicators, including life satisfaction;
and (c) moderating factors including cultural
context, stigma, and community support. By synthesizing findings across diverse
populations and methodological approaches,
this review seeks to provide a comprehensive
account of the psychological landscape of
religious disaffiliation and to identify directions
for future research and clinical practice.
METHODOLOGY
Search Strategy
A comprehensive search was conducted
across multiple electronic databases,
including PubMed, PsycINFO, Web of Science,
and Google Scholar. The search strategy
employed a combination of subject headings
and keywords related to religious disaffiliation
and well-being outcomes. Search terms
i ncluded: “religious disaffiliation,”
“deconversion,” “religious exit,” “post-religious
identity,” “atheist well-being,” and “spiritual
but not religious,” combined with well-being
related terms such as “mental health,” “life
satisfaction,” “depression,” “anxiety,” and
“meaning-making.”
The search was limited to peer-reviewed
publications in English from January 2000 to
December 2023. Reference lists of included
studies were manually searched to identify
additional relevant publications not captured
by the database searches.
Theoretical Foundations
The process of religious exit can be
understood through multiple theoretical
l enses. From a symbolic interactionism
perspective, religious identity is formed and
maintained through social interactions and
shared meaning-making processes
(Brinkerhoff & Burke, 1980). As individuals
l eave religious communities, they must
reconstruct their sense of self without the
familiar symbolic frameworks that once guided
them.
Attachment theory offers a complementary
perspective, positing that religious beliefs
often serve as a secure base for emotional
regulation and worldview formation. The loss
of attachment to God, community, or a belief
system can produce a profound psychological
i mpact comparable to other forms of
attachment disruption (Cherniak et al., 2020).
Social identity theory provides perhaps the
most comprehensive explanation of post
religious identity formation. According to this
framework, religious affiliation serves
multiple psychological functions: it fosters a
sense of community, enhances self-esteem
through in-group identification, and provides
individuals with a coherent sense of their
place in the world (Tongeren & DeWall, 2021).
The dissolution of these functions upon
religious exit necessitates an active process
of identity reconstruction.
RESULTS
Literature Review: An Overview of Disaffiliation Research
The landscape of religious disaffiliation
research reveals a complex tapestry of
psychological outcomes that defy simple
categorization. This section critically analyzes
existing scholarly works pertaining to religious
disaffiliation, its various manifestations, and
its documented impacts on individual well
being.
Empirical Findings on Well-Being Outcomes
The empirical literature presents nuanced
findings regarding well-being outcomes
following religious disaffiliation. Some studies
indicate that leaving religious affiliation is
associated with decreased health and life
satisfaction. Fenelon and Danielsen (2016)
demonstrated that religious disaffiliates
experience poorer physical health, increased
psychological distress, and reduced life
satisfaction compared to consistently religious
individuals. Their longitudinal analysis of
nationally representative data revealed that
these negative effects persisted even after
controlling
f or
demographic and
socioeconomic factors. However, other research points to potential
pathways for improved psychological
functioning through secular avenues. Studies
examining atheist and agnostic populations
have found that these groups often report
higher levels of psychological well-being in
certain domains, particularly those related to
autonomy and personal growth (Baker et al.,
2018). These individuals frequently describe
their religious exit as a liberation from
restrictive belief systems that constrained their
authentic self-expression.
The Complexity of Context
The impact of religious disaffiliation appears
to be heavily context-dependent. While
personal religiosity generally correlates
positively with life satisfaction globally, this
association intensifies in nations with greater
governmental regulation of individual liberties
(Elliott & Hayward, 2009). Cultural religiosity
also plays a crucial moderating role. In a
highly religious societies, post-religious
individuals may face significant social stigma,
discrimination, and ostracism that
substantially impact their well-being.
Conversely, in more secular societies,
religious disaffiliation may be regarded as a
normative life transition with fewer negative
social consequences.
The timing of religious exit also appears
significant. Research indicates that young
adults, particularly those who do not pursue
higher education, exhibit significant
decreases in religious participation (Uecker
et al., 2007). This developmental timing may
influence the ease of identity reconstruction,
as young adults are already navigating
multiple identity transitions and may possess
greater psychological flexibility in adapting to
change.
Special Populations and High-Control
Religious Groups
Research on individuals leaving high-control
religious groups provides particularly
illuminating insights into the challenges of
post-religious identity formation. Studies of
former Jehovah’s Witnesses reveal the
complex interplay between method of exit
(voluntary versus forced), prior religious
commitment, and subsequent well-being
outcomes. Individuals who were
disfellowshipped (i.e., subject to forced exit)
often experienced distinct patterns of
ostracism and identity reconstruction
compared to those who chose to leave
voluntarily (Ransom et al., 2021).
Similarly, research on former members of
ultra-Orthodox Jewish communities,
evangelical groups, and other high-demand
religions consistently documents the
challenges of transitioning to secular life,
including difficulties with foundational life
skills, social integration, and identity
coherence (Berger, 2015; Fazzino, 2014).
MENTAL HEALTH OUTCOMES
Depression and Anxiety
The relationship between religious
disaffiliation and mental health outcomes
proved complex and multifaceted across the
reviewed studies. Depression emerged as the
most frequently examined outcome, with
mixed findings across different populations
and contexts. Most studies examining
depression found elevated levels among post
religious individuals compared to consistently
religious populations; however, this
relationship was significantly moderated by
several factors. Studies conducted in highly
religious societies consistently reported
stronger associations between religious exit
and depressive symptoms, while research in
more secular contexts yielded weaker or non
significant relationships.
Fenelon and Danielsen (2016) analyzed
nationally representative data revealing that
religious disaffiliates showed increased
depressive symptoms over time, with effects persisting for several years post-exit.
However, other longitudinal studies suggested
that elevations in psychological distress often
diminished over time, particularly among
individuals who successfully constructed
alternative meaning-making frameworks.
Anxiety outcomes displayed patterns similar
to those observed for depression, with
elevations reported most acutely in the period
immediately following religious exit. Several
studies examined existential anxiety
specifically, finding that post-religious
i ndividuals frequently struggled with
questions of meaning, purpose, and mortality
that had previously been addressed within
their religious frameworks (Grupa & Zarzycka,
2025).
Life Satisfaction
The relationship between religious
disaffiliation and life satisfaction proved
similarly nuanced. While some studies
reported decreased life satisfaction among
post-religious individuals, others found no
significant differences in certain domains.
Hayward et al. (2016) revealed a significant
contrast between different types of non
religious identification: committed atheists
often reported life satisfaction levels
comparable to those of religious individuals,
whereas individuals with “no religious
preference” showed the most concerning well
being profiles, suggesting that the quality of
identity construction — rather than mere
disaffiliation — is a decisive factor.Autonomy
and Personal Growth
Multiple studies indicated that feelings of
autonomy and personal growth were notably
elevated among post-religious individuals who
described their religious exit as a voluntary
choice made in pursuit of authenticity.
Participants frequently reported making
decisions based on personal values rather
t han external religious authority, an
experience consistently associated with an
enhanced sense of agency and life satisfaction
(Haire, 2022).
SOCIAL OUTCOMES
Family Relationships
Family relationships were frequently affected
following religious disaffiliation, with many
post-religious individuals reporting strained
ties with family members who remained
religiously affiliated. Persons from high
control religious groups reported particularly
severe social consequences, including
complete shunning by family members, which
was found to exacerbate psychological
distress and complicate the process of identity
reconstruction.
Community and Social Support
The loss of religious community represented
a significant challenge for most post-religious
individuals. Religious communities typically
provide multiple forms of social support,
i ncluding emotional support, practical
assistance, and shared social activities.
Studies consistently found that successful
post-religious identity formation was
associated with the development of alternative
social support networks capable of fulfilling
these functions.
MODERATING FACTORS
Cultural Context
Cultural religiosity emerged as one of the
strongest moderators of the relationship
between religious disaffiliation and well-being
outcomes. Studies conducted in highly
religious societies such as the American South
or conservative Muslim-majority countries
consistently reported more negative outcomes
for post-religious individuals, including higher
levels of discrimination, social isolation, and
psychological distress. By contrast, research
conducted in more secular societies, such as
urban areas of Western Europe, found small
and frequently non-significant differences in well-being between religious and post
religious individuals. These findings
collectively suggest that the social acceptance
of non-religious worldviews plays a crucial
role in determining post-exit outcomes.
Type and Intensity of Prior Religious
Involvement
Prior religious commitment was found to exert
a significant influence on post-exit outcomes
across numerous studies. Individuals from
fundamentalist religious backgrounds faced
greater difficulties in reconstructing their
identities and integrating into secular society.
Paradoxically, some studies suggested that
higher levels of prior religious commitment
were associated with both greater initial
distress and more successful long-term
i dentity reconstruction. A “U-shaped”
relationship reflecting the more substantial
identity resources and skills developed by
highly committed individuals.
DISCUSSION
The Double-Edged Nature of Religious Exit
The synthesis of empirical evidence reveals
that post-religious identity formation
represents a complex psychosocial process
with profound implications for individual well
being. Longitudinal analyses of nationally
representative data demonstrate that religious
disaffiliation is associated with both significant
psychological costs — including increased
depressive symptoms and reduced life
satisfaction — and potential gains in autonomy
and personal growth (Fenelon & Danielsen,
2016). Rather than producing uniformly
positive or negative outcomes, disaffiliation
appears to initiate a period of identity
reconstruction that can lead to diverse
endpoints depending on multiple individual
and contextual factors (Baker et al., 2018).
One of the most consistent themes emerging
from the literature is the paradoxical nature
of the religious exit experience. While many
i ndividuals report enhanced autonomy,
authenticity, and personal growth following
their departure from religious communities,
t hey simultaneously face significant
challenges including social isolation,
existential uncertainty, and stigma (Brinkerhoff
& Burke, 1980). This double-edged effect
underscores the high-stakes nature of
religious exit as an identity transition, one in
which the reconstruction of meaning and
community is as consequential as the
departure itself.
The positive dimensions of religious exit
frequently center on themes of liberation and
authentic self-expression. Individuals who
describe their disaffiliation as a voluntary,
self-directed choice consistently report higher
levels of autonomy and personal growth than
those who exit under social or family pressure
(Baker et al., 2018). However, these benefits
often came at significant social and
psychological costs, as the loss of religious
community typically entailed the simultaneous
l oss of social support, meaning-making
frameworks, and cultural identity (Fenelon &
Danielsen, 2016).
The Critical Role of Context
A consistent finding across the reviewed
literature is that the social and cultural context
of religious disaffiliation substantially shapes
individual outcomes. Individuals in highly
religious societies face markedly greater
challenges than those in more secular
environments. Research demonstrates that
the positive association between personal
religiosity and life satisfaction intensifies in
nations with greater governmental restriction
of individual liberties, suggesting that cultural
religiosity compounds the social costs of
disaffiliation (Elliott & Hayward, 2009).
Findings derived from, for example, highly
religious regions of the United States may
therefore not be generalizable to post
religious individuals in secular European
countries, underscoring the need for culturally sensitive theoretical models and targeted
interventions.
The timing of religious exit also appears
critical. Research indicates that young adults
who do not pursue higher education exhibit
the most pronounced decreases in religious
participation (Uecker et al., 2007), suggesting
that educational pathways moderate both the
likelihood and the experiential quality of
disaffiliation. Transitions occurring during
young adulthood may offer greater
opportunities for successful identity
reconstruction given the natural
developmental fluidity of this period; however,
young adults may simultaneously lack the
social and economic resources necessary to
navigate complex identity transitions
successfully.
Identity Reconstruction Processes
The reviewed literature provides important
insights into the mechanisms through which
post-religious individuals reconstruct their
identities. Successful identity reconstruction
appears to require several interrelated
components: the development of alternative
meaning-making frameworks, the
establishment of new social support networks,
and the integration of post-religious identity
with other aspects of self-concept. Studies on
the role of meaning-making in well-being
indicate that the ability to construct coherent
personal narratives outside of religious
frameworks is a significant predictor of
positive adjustment (Maliòáková et al., 2020).
The most effective meaning-making
approaches were those that provided coherent
answers to existential questions while
aligning with individuals’ broader value
systems. Notably, committed atheists who
have developed stable secular identities
report life satisfaction levels comparable to
those of their religious peers, whereas
individuals without a clear post-religious
identity framework show significantly more compromised well-being profiles (Hayward et
al., 2016). This underscores the centrality of
active identity work rather than mere
disaffiliation. Reconstructing social identity
was equally challenging: individuals often had
to disengage from their religious communities
while simultaneously building new social
connections — a process well documented
among evangelical leavers and those exiting
high-demand denominations (Fazzino, 2014).
CLINICAL AND THERAPEUTIC IMPLICATIONS
The findings of this review carry important
implications for mental health professionals
working with post-religious individuals.
Traditional therapeutic approaches may prove
i nsufficient for addressing the unique
challenges faced by this population,
particularly the complex interplay between
i dentity, meaning-making, and social
belonging. A substantial body of evidence
documents the mental health benefits that
religious involvement provides through
spiritual coping, social support, and coherent
worldviews (Hussain, 2022; Moreira-Almeida
et al., 2006); clinicians should therefore be
equipped to address the loss of these
resources when clients undergo disaffiliation,
including existential distress, grief over lost
community, and the renegotiation of moral
frameworks.
The review also highlights the importance of
cultural competence among mental health
professionals. Therapists working with post
religious clients must be familiar with the
specific challenges associated with different
types of religious backgrounds, including an
awareness of religious trauma. Evidence from
studies of former Jehovah’s Witnesses and
ultra-Orthodox Jewish community leavers
demonstrates that individuals from high
control religious environments frequently
experience prolonged identity disruption,
social ostracism, and difficulties reintegrating
into secular life (Ransom et al., 2021; Berger,
2015). Awareness of these dynamics is essential for providing effective, trauma
informed care to this population.
LIMITATIONS
Several important limitations emerged from
the review of existing literature. The majority
of studies employed cross-sectional designs,
which limits causal inference and
understanding of the temporal dynamics of
post-religious identity formation. Notable
exceptions, such as the longitudinal work by
Fenelon and Danielsen (2016), demonstrate
that negative well-being effects can persist
for several years post-exit, but such studies
remain scarce. Further longitudinal research
is crucial for understanding how well-being
outcomes evolve over time and for identifying
the factors that promote resilience and
recovery.
Another significant limitation is the geographic
and cultural bias toward Western, educated
populations. The majority of reviewed studies
were conducted in North American or Western
European contexts (e.g., Baker et al., 2018;
Uecker et al., 2007), and the experiences of
post-religious individuals in non-Western
cultures, developing countries, and non
Christian religious contexts remain
substantially understudied. Measurement
issues also emerged as a concern: many
studies relied on general measures of well
being and mental health that may not capture
t he unique aspects of post-religious
experience. The development and validation
of measures specifically designed for post
religious populations could significantly
advance the field.
Sample selection bias represents an
additional methodological concern. Many
studies recruited participants through online
communities or support groups specifically for
post-religious individuals (e.g., Ransom et al.,
2021), potentially over-representing those
with more negative exit experiences or
ongoing identity struggles. Community-based
sampling approaches and probability-based
recruitment strategies would provide more
representative samples of the broader
disaffiliated population.
FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
The review identifies several priority areas
for future research. Longitudinal studies
tracking individuals through the process of
religious exit and identity reconstruction are
urgently needed to illuminate the temporal
dynamics of these transitions and identify
critical inflection points. As demonstrated by
existing longitudinal work (Fenelon &
Danielsen, 2016), well-being trajectories
following disaffiliation are not static;
understanding the conditions under which
recovery and flourishing occur — particularly
in relation to meaning-making processes
(Maliòáková et al., 2020) — could directly
i nform the development of targeted
psychological interventions.
Cross-cultural research examining post
religious experiences in diverse cultural and
religious contexts would significantly enhance
understanding of the role of contextual factors
in moderating outcomes. Comparative studies
t hat extend beyond the Western,
predominantly Christian contexts that
dominate the current literature (Elliott &
Hayward, 2009) are particularly needed.
Theoretical development is equally important:
although foundational frameworks such as
symbolic interactionism offer valuable starting
points (Brinkerhoff & Burke, 1980),
comprehensive integrative models that
account for the full range of identity, meaning
making, and social processes involved in post
religious transitions are still lacking.
Research on resilience factors and protective
processes represents another critical priority.
Evidence that some post-religious individuals
— particularly committed atheists with stable
secular identities — achieve well-being levels
comparable to religious individuals (Baker et al., 2018; Hayward et al., 2016) suggests that
positive outcomes are attainable and that the
conditions supporting them can be identified
and cultivated. Understanding these factors
could assist in identifying individuals at risk
for negative outcomes and in informing
preventive interventions and community
support programs.
CONCLUSIONS
Post-religious identity formation represents a
complex and multifaceted process with
significant implications for psychological well
being. While the transition away from
religious belief and community can offer
opportunities for enhanced autonomy,
authenticity, and personal growth, it also
presents substantial challenges, including
social isolation, existential uncertainty, and
identity disruption.
The relationship between religious
disaffiliation and well-being outcomes is
neither uniformly positive nor negative but
depends heavily on contextual factors
including cultural environment, method of exit,
prior religious involvement, and access to
support resources. This contextual
dependency underscores the importance of
individualized approaches to understanding
and supporting post-religious individuals.
The evidence suggests that successful post
religious identity formation requires active
identity reconstruction work, including the
development of alternative meaning-making
frameworks and the establishment of new
social support networks. Mental health
professionals, community organizations, and
peer support networks play crucial roles in
facilitating positive outcomes for individuals
navigating these transitions.
Several important research gaps remain,
including the need for longitudinal studies,
cross-cultural research, and the development
of post-religious-specific theoretical models
and measures. As religious disaffiliation continues to increase globally, understanding
the psychological processes and outcomes
associated with post-religious identity
formation becomes increasingly important for
mental health professionals, researchers, and
society more broadly.
The complexity and diversity of post-religious
experiences documented in this review
underscore the importance of avoiding
overgeneralization while recognizing common
themes and challenges. Each individual’s
journey away from religious belief and
community is unique, shaped by personal
history, cultural context, and available
resources. This review demonstrates that
while religious disaffiliation can present
significant challenges, individuals are capable
of successfully reconstructing meaningful,
fulfilling identities outside of religious
frameworks. Understanding the factors that
promote such positive outcomes represents
both a scientific challenge and a moral
imperative as societies become increasingly
diverse in their religious and spiritual
orientations.
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Conflict of interest: None
Role of funding source: None
ISSN: 2582-1393 (Online)